The Comoros (pronounced /ˈkɒməroʊz/,; Arabic: جزر القمر‎, Juzur al-Qumur), officially the Union of the Comoros (French: Union des Comores, Arabic: الإتّحاد القمريّ‎, Al-Ittiḥād al-Qumuriyy) is an island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel between northern Madagascar and northeastern Mozambique. The nearest countries to the Comoros are Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar, and the Seychelles. At 2,235 km² (863 sq mi) the Comoros is the third smallest African nation by area; and with a population estimated at 798,000 it is the sixth smallest African nation by population (though it has one of the highest population densities in Africa). Its name derives from the Arabic word qamar ("moon").

The country officially consists of the four islands in the volcanic Comoros archipelago: Ngazidja (French: Grande Comore), Mwali (French: Mohéli), Nzwani (French: Anjouan), and Mahoré (French: Mayotte), as well as many smaller islands. However, the government of the Union of the Comoros (or its predecessors since independence) has never administered the island of Mayotte, which France considers an overseas community and still administers. Since Mayotte was the only island in the archipelago that voted against independence from France, and France has vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions that would affirm Comorian sovereignty over the island, control was never passed to the Comoros.

The country is notable for its diverse culture and history, as a nation formed at the crossroads of many civilizations. It has three official languages—Comorian (Shikomor), Arabic, and French, and it is the only state to be a member of each of the African Union, Francophonie, Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Arab League, and Indian Ocean Commission, among other international organizations. However it has had a troubled history since independence in 1975, marked by an inordinate number of coups d'état.

History

Pre-colonial inhabitation

The first human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are thought to have been Polynesian and Melanesian settlers, Malays and Indonesians, travelling by boat. They settled in at least the sixth century AD, the date of the earliest known archaeological site, found on Nzwani, and some sources speculate settlement as early as the first century.^[2] The islands of Comoros became populated by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indonesia, and Madagascar. Settlers of the Swahili people first reached the islands as a part of the greater Bantu expansion that took place on the continent of Afica throughout the first millennium. Development of the Comoros is periodized into phases beginning with Swahili influence and settlement in the Dembini phase from the ninth to tenth centuries, in which the islands maintained only a single central village each.^[3] By the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and Middle Eastern merchants flourished and smaller villages sprung up while towns grew. Unconfirmed legends tell of early Arab or Persian settlements before their known arrivals, and Swahili oral historians frequently trace genealogies back to Persian or Arab ancestors. Contact with Middle Eastern merchants brought Islam to the islands for the first time, and it gained in popularity, as large mosques were soon constructed. The Comoro Islands, like other coastal areas in the region, were important stops in early Islamic trade routes frequented by Persians and Arabs. Despite its distance from the coast, Comoros is situated amidst the major sea route between Kilwa and Mozambique, an outlet for Zimbabwean gold.^[4]

By the nineteenth century, Shirazi influence dominated the islands. Sunni Arabs from Shiraz, Iran, the Shirazi traded along East Africa, the Middle East, and India, and had established colonies in the Comoros. Arab influence increased with the ascendancy of Zanzibar under Arab Omani rule, and Comorian culture, especially architecture and religion, increasingly reflected Arab contact. Many rival sultanates were established in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.^[5] By the time Europeans became interested in the Comoros as more than a stop for traveling merchants, the Arab appearance of the islands led to much of succeeding historiography emphasizing Arab foundations over Swahili and African heritage. Recent scholarship by historians like Thomas Spear and Randall Pouwells emphasizes African historical predominance over the diffusionist perspecitve.^[6]

European contact and French colonization

Portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505.

France first established colonial rule in the Comoros beginning in 1841. The first French colonists landed in Mayotte, and Andrian Tsouli, the King of Mayotte, signed the Treaty of April 1841, which ceded the island to French authorities. In 1886, Mohéli was turned over to French protection by its Queen Salimba Mochimba. That same year, after consolidating his authority over all of Grand Comore, Sultan Said Ali agreed to French protection of his island, though he retained sovereignty until 1909. Also in 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Anjouan abdicated in favor of French rule of the island. The Comoros (or Les Comores) was officially made a French colony in 1912, and the islands were placed under the administration of the French colonial governor general of Madagascar in 1914.^[7]

The Comoros continued to be used as a way station for merchants to the Far East and India until the construction of the Suez Canal greatly reduced traffic passing through the Mozambique Channel. The only native commodities exported by the Comoros were coconuts. French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After its annexation, France converted Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. The other islands were soon transformed as well, and the major crops ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, cocoa, and sisal were introduced.^[8]

Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring independence. The deputies of Mayotte, which stayed under French control, abstained. Referendums on all four of the islands excluding Mayotte showed strong support for independence. Ahmed Abdallah became the first president and proclaimed the Comoros' independence on September 5, 1975.

Independent Comoros

The next thirty years were a period of political turmoil. It began in 1975 when mercenary Bob Denard with clandestine funding by Jacques Foccart and the French government removed president Ahmed Abdallah from office in an armed coup on August 3, 1975, and replaced him with United National Front of the Comoros (UNF) member Prince Said Mohammed Jaffar. Just a few months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favor of his Minister of Defense Ali Soilih.^[9] Around that time, in two referendums — December 1974 and February 1976 — the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively). The three independent islands, ruled by President Soilih, instituted a number of socialist and isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On May 13, 1978, Bob Denard returned and overthrew President Solih by force and re-instated Abdallah with the support of the French and South African governments. In contrast to Soilih, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased adherence to traditional Islam.^[10] During Soilih's short rule, there had been seven further documented coup attempts before the successful overthrow by Denard in May 1978.^[11] Unlike Abdallah, Soilih was killed after being forced from office.

Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing a probable coup d'état, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was allegedly killed by a disgruntled military officer fatally shooting the president in his office, and injuring Denard at the same time, though later sources claim an anti-tank missile launched into his bedroom was the cause of Abdallah's death.^[12] It is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier in Denard's command.^[13]A few days later, Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers. Said Mohamed Djohar, Soilih's older half-brother, then became president and served until September 1995 when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. France intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender.^[14][15] The French moved Djohar to Reunion and the Paris-backed Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim became president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labor crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until he died in November 1998 and was succeeded by Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde.^[16]

The islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declared their independence from the Comoros in 1997, attempting to rejoin French rule. However, France refused the islands, and there were bloody confrontations between federal troops and rebels during Taki's government.^[17] Colonel Azali Assoumani, Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a bloodless coup in April 1999, overthrowing the Interim President Tadjiddine Ben Said Massounde citing weak leadership in the face of crisis. The BBC reported that Azali's takeover was the Comoros' eighteenth coup d'etat since independence in 1975.^[18] A subsequent failed attempt by Azali to consolidate power and reestablish control over these islands was the subject of international criticism, and the African Union, under the auspices of President Mbeki of South Africa, intervened, imposing sanctions on Anjouan to help broker negotiations and effect a reconciliation.^[19][20] This involved a system of governmental autonomy for each island, plus a Union government for the three islands. Azali stepped down in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoro Union, which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had originally come to power by force and was not always democratic while in office, Azali led the Union through constitutional changes that enabled new elections.^[21] A "Loi des compétences" (a law that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body) was passed in early 2005 and is in the process of implementation. The elections in 2006 were won by Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, a Sunni Muslim Cleric nick-named the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in Iran. Azali honored the election results, thus allowing the first-ever peaceful and democratic exchange of power in the archipelagos' recent and turbulent history.^[22]

Politics

Politics of the Union of the Comoros takes place in a framework of a federal presidential republic, whereby the President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on December 23, 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in the following months. It had previously been considered a military dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance, a commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians. Each of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental Law), president, and Parliament. The presidencey and Assembly of the Union are distinct from each of the Islands' governments. The presidency of the Union rotates between the islands.^[23] Anjouan holds the current presidency rotation, and so Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi is President of the Union; Mohéli and Ngazidja follow in four year terms.^[24]

The Comorian legal system rests on Islamic law and an inherited French (Napoleonic code) legal code. Village elders or civilian courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island.^[25]

Military

The military resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a small troop presence in Comoros at government request. France maintains a small maritime base and a Foreign Legion Detachment (DLEM) on Mayotte. See also Military of Comoros.

Foreign relations

In November 1975, Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations. The new nation was defined as consisting of the entire archipelago, despite the fact that France maintains control over Mayotte. Comoros has repeatedly pressed its claim to Mayotte before the United Nations General Assembly, which has adopted a series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to Comoros under the principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will become de facto part of Comoros without its people's consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but deferred it from year to year without taking action.

Comoros also is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the European Development Fund, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Indian Ocean Commission, and the African Development Bank.

International disputes

The Comoros claims French-administered Mayotte and the Glorioso Islands.

Government functions

At independence in 1975 the Comoros was a multiparty democracy led by President Ahmed Abdallah. However, he was overthrown in a coup a year later. A constitution was written in 1978, but a 1979 coup bringing Abdallah back to power set back the competitive process. The constitution was revised in 1982 and 1985, but it has never really taken seed as there have been at least 20 coups or coup attempts in the Comoros in its 25 years of independence. A new constitution was approved by referendum in 2001.

Typically, the president is to be elected by direct universal suffrage to a five-year term and is limited to two terms. Suffrage is extended to all citizens over the age of 18 who still possess full civil and political rights. The president nominates ministers to form a cabinet called the Council of Government and he nominates governors for each of the three islands. These governors each serve a five-year term. If the presidency becomes vacant for any reason the president of the Supreme Court serves as interim president until an election can be held.

The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislature. It is charged with supervising elections and examining constitutional issues. There are seven members in the Supreme Court, two chosen by the president, two chosen by the Assembly and one chosen by each of the three island councils.

The legislature is bicameral. Assembly (lower house) representatives are elected to four-year terms through a popular vote. An electoral college chooses senators. The leader of the party with the most number of seats in the Assembly holds the post of prime minister.

Each of the islands, under the new 2001 constitution, holds a great amount of autonomy, each with its own council. The council, which is elected by an island-level popular vote, is expected to serve as a local legislature and the (appointed) governor is expected to serve as the local executive.

Economy

Comoros is one of the poorest countries in the world. Economic growth and poverty reduction are major priorities for the government. With a rate of 14.3%, unemployment is considered very high. Agriculture, including fishing, hunting, and forestry, is the leading sector of the economy, and 38.4% of the working population is employed in the primary sector. High population densities, as much as 1000 per square kilometer in the densest agricultural zones, for what is still a mostly rural, agricultural economy may lead to an environmetal crisis in the near future, especially considering the high rate of population growth. The Comoros' real GDP growth was a low 1.9% in 2004 and real GDP per capita was continuing declining annually in 2004. These declines are explained by factors like declining investment, a drop in consumption, rising inflation, and an increase in trade imbalance in part due to lowered cash crop prices, especially vanilla.^[26]

Comoros has inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% to GDP, employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. Comoros is the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang, and a large producer of vanilla.

The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate.

The Comoros claims the Banc du Geyser and the Glorioso Islands as part of its exclusive economic zone.

Demographics

With fewer than a million people, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world, but is also one of the most densely populated, with an average of 275 people per km². In 2001, 34% of the population was considered urban, but that is expected to grow, since rural population growth is negative, while overall population growth is still relatively high.^[27] Major urban centers include Moroni, Mutsamudu, Domoni, Fomboni, and Tsémbéhou.

The islands of the Comoros share mostly African-Arab origins. Sunni Islam is the dominant religion, representing as much as 98% of the population. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a minority of the citizens of Mayotte (the Mahorais) are Roman Catholic and have been strongly influenced by French culture.^[28] Malagasy and Indian minorities also exist, as well as Creole-speaking minorities mostly descended from Réunionnaise. Chinese peoples are also present on Mayotte and parts of Grande Comore (especially Moroni).

The most common language is Comorian, or Shikomor, a descendant of Swahili with Arabic influences. Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shinzwani, and Shimaore are the local dialects spoken on each of the islands, Ngazidja, Mwali, Nzwani, and Mahoré, respectively. French and Arabic are also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a second language, being the language of Quranic teaching, and French is the language of all other formal education. Malagasy is also spoken by a small number of Malagasy immigrants.^[29] About fifty-seven percent of the population is literate in the Latin alphabet, more with the Arabic alphabet; total literacy is estimated at 62.5%.^[30] Comorian has no native script, but both Arabic and Latin scripts have been used.

Media and culture

Nearly the entirety of the educated populace of the Comoros has attended Quranic schools at some point in their life, often before regular schooling, where boys and girls are taught and memorize the Quran and Arabic at early ages. Some parents specifically choose this early schooling to offset French schools children usually attend later. Since independence and the ejection of French teachers, the education system has been plagued by poor teacher training and poor results, though recent stability may allow for substantial improvements.^[31]

Comorian (Shikomori) is the most widely used language on the Comoros. It is a close relative of Swahili with a very strong Arabic influence, and is one of the three official languages of the Comoros, next to French and Arabic. Each island has a slightly different dialect; that of Anjouan is called Shindzuani, that of Moheli Shimwali, that of Mayotte Shimaore, and that of Grande Comore Shingazidja. No official alphabet existed in 1992, but Arabic and Latin scripts were both used.

There is no national newspaper in Comoros; the leading regional paper is Al-Watwan published on Grande Comore; Kwezi is also published on Mayotte. Radio Comoros is the national radio service and Comoros National TV is the television service.

References

This article incorporates text from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which is in the public domain.

Further reading

• The Comoros Islands: Struggle Against Dependency in the Indian Ocean Malyn Newitt
• Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands Martin and Harriet Ottenheimer
• Shinzwani-English/English-Shinzwani Dictionary Harriet Ottenheimer
• Lonely Planet World Guide: Madagascar and Comoros Gemma Pitcher and Patricia C. Wright

Web Links

News

• allAfrica - Comoros news headline links
• Al-Watwan weekly newspaper
• Indian Ocean Newsletter - Comoros

Overviews

• Drs. Martin and Harriet Ottenheimer - Comoro Islands
• BBC News - Country Profile: Comores
• CIA World Factbook - Comoros
• US State Department - Comoros includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

Directories

• al-Bab - Comoros directory category
• Anjouan.net
• Columbia University Libraries - Angola directory category of the WWW-VL
• MweziNet directory and encyclopedia
• Open Directory Project - Comoros
• Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Comoros directory category
• The Index on Africa - Comoros directory category
• Yahoo! - Comoros directory category

Tourism

• Comoros travel guide from Wikitravel

Other

• Comores Online portal
• Republican party of Comoros
• Report from IRIN (UN office for the coordination of Humanitarian Affairs)
• The islands of Comoros
• www.comoros-online.com - First information website on Comoros - Association MWEZINET "La passion des Comores"
• Travel in Comoros